Turkish citizens comprised the largest group of nationals to be returned from European Union countries to non-EU nations in 2025, according to Eurostat data, as European institutions continue to document legal risks in Turkey for dissidents, alleged Gülen movement affiliates, Kurdish activists and other perceived government critics.
Eurostat figures published Tuesday show that 13,405 Turkish citizens were returned from EU countries to third countries last year after receiving orders to leave. The figure put Turkish nationals ahead of other major returnee groups and came as the bloc continued to tighten migration controls. Eurostat records returns to non-EU countries but does not specify destinations in its headline figures.
Eurostat defines returns as cases in which third-country nationals who received an administrative or judicial order to leave an EU country were returned to a third country. The figures do not identify whether those returned had applied for asylum, had residence permits, overstayed visas or entered irregularly.
Returns to Turkey can carry particular legal sensitivity because European institutions and courts have repeatedly documented concerns over the country’s use of counterterrorism laws and prosecutions involving government critics and perceived political opponents.
Those concerns have been especially pronounced in cases involving alleged Gülen movement followers as well as Kurdish politicians, journalists, opposition figures and human rights defenders.
Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has targeted followers of the Gülen movement, inspired by the late Muslim cleric Fethullah Gülen, since corruption investigations in December 2013 implicated him as well as some members of his family and inner circle. He dismissed the probes as a Gülenist conspiracy and later designated the movement a terrorist organization in May 2016, intensifying a sweeping crackdown after a coup attempt in July of the same year that he accused Gülen of orchestrating. The movement denies involvement in the coup attempt or any terrorist activity.
European institutions have documented concerns about Turkey’s use of counterterrorism laws. In its 2025 report on Turkey, the European Commission said Turkey should align its anti-terror legislation and implementation with European standards, the European Convention on Human Rights, European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) case law, Venice Commission recommendations and EU practices.
The ECtHR has repeatedly ruled against Turkey in cases involving terrorism convictions linked to alleged Gülen movement ties. In the Yüksel Yalçınkaya case, the court found violations of the right to a fair trial, the principle of no punishment without law and freedom of association.
Last week, the court ruled that Turkey violated Article 7 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which prohibits punishment without law, and Article 3, which bans inhuman or degrading treatment, in the case of Şaban Yasak, who was convicted in 2018 over alleged links to the Gülen movement.
Turkey’s counterterrorism and criminal laws have also been used in cases involving journalists and Kurdish activists. Human Rights Watch said in its 2025 report on Turkey that journalists regularly face prosecution under Turkey’s Counterterrorism Law and other laws, and that Kurdish journalists are disproportionately targeted.
Journalists in Turkey have faced charges over reporting, social media posts and contacts with sources or organizations viewed by authorities as linked to outlawed groups. Kurdish politicians and activists, particularly those linked to pro-Kurdish parties or movements, have faced terrorism-related prosecutions that critics say criminalize political activity and expression.
The figures were released as EU governments continued to put greater emphasis on returns in migration policy. Eurostat said 491,950 third-country nationals were ordered to leave EU countries in 2025, up 5.8 percent from 2024. It said 135,460 third-country nationals were returned to a third country following an order to leave, up 20.9 percent from the previous year.
